Examining professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy in ındividual and team athletes

Examining professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy in ındividual and team athletes

Metin Yüceant1, Ladislav Batalik2,3,4, Yağmur Yıldız5, Hande Yazıcıoğlu Çalışan5

1Faculty of Sports Sciences, Aksaray University, Aksaray/Türkiye; 2Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic; 3Department of Rehabilitation, University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic; 4Department fo Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic; 5Specialization Coordination in Sports and Health, Aksaray University, Aksaray/Türkiye.

Summary. Clinical report. The aim of this study is to examine the levels of professionalism, psychological resilience, and athlete self-efficacy of athletes in individual and team sports. Methods. A total of 384 athletes, 176 from individual and 208 from team sports, participated in the study. Participants completed the Personal Information Form, Professionalism Scale for Athletes, Psychological Resilience Scale for Adults, and Athlete Self-Efficacy Scale. Data were analyzed using the SPSS 21 software package; descriptive statistics, one-way (year of playing sport) and two-way (gender x sport type) analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied to examine group differences. Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine relationships between variables. Results. The findings revealed that athletes engaged in individual sports had higher levels of professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy competence. Moreover, male athletes demonstrated higher levels of professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy than woman athletes. Conclusions. These results suggest that athlete development is influenced not only by individual efforts but also by environmental, social, and structural factors.

Key words. Sports psychology, resilience, psychological, self efficacy, athletes, athletic performance.

Esame della professionalità, della resilienza psicologica e dell’autoefficacia negli atleti degli sport individuali e di squadra

Riassunto. Background. Lo scopo di questo studio è esaminare i livelli di professionalità, resilienza psicologica e autoefficacia degli atleti negli sport individuali e di squadra. Metodi. Hanno partecipato allo studio un totale di 384 atleti, di cui 176 provenienti da sport individuali e 208 da sport di squadra. I partecipanti hanno completato il Modulo di Informazioni Personali, la Scala di Professionalità per Atleti, la Scala di Resilienza Psicologica nello Sport e la Scala di Autoefficacia dell’Atleta. I dati sono stati analizzati utilizzando il software SPSS 21; sono state applicate statistiche descrittive, il l’analisi della varianza unidirezionale (ANOVA) per esaminare le differenze tra i gruppi. Mentre l’analisi di correlazione di Pearson è stata condotta per esaminare le relazioni tra le variabili. Risultati. I risultati hanno rivelato che gli atleti impegnati in sport individuali presentavano livelli più elevati di resilienza psicologica e competenza professionale. Inoltre, gli atleti di sesso maschile hanno dimostrato livelli più alti di atteggiamenti professionali e resilienza psicologica rispetto alle atlete di sesso femminile. Conclusioni. Questi risultati suggeriscono che lo sviluppo dell’atleta è influenzato non solo dallo sforzo individuale, ma anche da fattori ambientali, sociali e strutturali.

Parole chiave. Psicologia dello sport, resilienza psicologica, autoefficacia, atleti, prestazione atletica.

Introduction

Sport is a rule-based competitive activity that supports physical and mental health and has a universal language1. Sport, which improves quality of life, strengthens social welfare and supports interaction between individuals, is also a socio-cultural phenomenon that promotes values such as fair play and brotherhood2. Sports are divided into individual and team sports; individual sports focus on individual performance, while team sports focus on cooperation, communication and group dynamics3. Team sports make significant contributions to the development of social skills such as social interaction, role sharing and sense of belonging4,5.

Professionalism in this study is defined as a multidimensional construct that encompasses the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors expected from individuals who perform a role in a qualified and responsible manner6,7. It reflects a professional’s level of commitment to a professional identity, as well as adherence to ethical standards and role expectations8. In the athletic context, professionalism refers to athletes’ sport-specific knowledge and skills, their readiness for continuous learning, openness to criticism and cooperation, sense of responsibility, effective communication, internalized athlete identity and willingness to persist in the face of difficulties9. In other words, professionalism is conceptualized as a set of relatively stable role-related attitudes and behaviors that can be further strengthened through training and experience.

In this study, psychological resilience is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that includes both relatively stable personal dispositions and dynamic adaptation processes. It is defined as an individual’s capacity to cope with stressful, challenging and uncertain situations, and it plays a critical role in athletes’ performance and overall well-being10. Especially in elite and competitive sport environments, the intense physical demands and psychological pressures require athletes to develop and maintain high levels of resilience11. Resilience enables athletes to remain flexible in the face of challenges, sustain their motivation and stay focused on their goals12. Moreover, this psychological resource is important for career continuity by helping athletes cope with negative experiences such as injuries, failures and performance fluctuations13. Thus, resilience is regarded as both a trait-like capacity and a developmental, experience-dependent process that can be fostered through long-term sport participation and supportive environments.

Self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s task- and domain-specific belief in his or her ability to organize and execute the actions required to cope with situational challenges and successfully complete a given activity within a specified period of time14. Individuals with high self-efficacy tend to be more confident, motivated, persistent and optimistic, whereas those with low self-efficacy are more likely to be hesitant, insecure and pessimistic. As a result, self-efficacy exerts direct and indirect effects on many aspects of human functioning, including effort, persistence, emotional reactions and performance. In the context of sport, athlete self-efficacy reflects the extent to which athletes believe they can successfully meet the physical, technical, tactical and psychological demands of training and competition.

When the researches were examined, it was seen that there were studies on professionalism and athlete self-efficacy15-19. As in different fields, professionalism in the field of sports is becoming more and more important day by day. Therefore, it is thought that it is important to understand the concept of professionalism in order for the sport profession to reach more professional levels. In addition, self-efficacy can be affected by personal experiences, social evaluations, physiological and emotional states. From this point of view, it can be said that self-efficacy is extremely important for individuals to show a successful performance especially in sports environments.

Addressing the concepts of professionalism, self-efficacy and psychological resilience, which are of great importance for athletes, together is critical for developing a holistic understanding in the field of sport psychology and sport science. In the literature, professionalism is defined as an individual’s adoption of standards regarding professional knowledge, attitudes and behaviors and the capacity to fulfill professional responsibilities; in the context of sport, it is associated with athletes’ professional development and disciplined performance8,20. However, studies examining these three concepts together, especially in the context of individual and team athletes, are limited in the literature.

In this context, evaluating the concepts of professionalism, self-efficacy and psychological resilience together will allow a better understanding of the multidimensional processes that affect the performance and professional development of athletes. Therefore, examining these three psychological structural characteristics of individual and team athletes together will make significant contributions to the literature both theoretically and practically. In the light of all this information, this study aimed to examine the levels of professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy of individual and team athletes.

In line with the aim of the study, the following research problems were sought to be answered:

1. Do athletes’ professionalism, psychological resilience and self-efficacy levels differ significantly according to sport type and gender?

2. Is there a significant difference in athletes’ professionalism, psychological resilience and self-efficacy levels according to their years of sport?

3. Is there a significant relationship between professionalism, psychological resilience and self-efficacy levels?

Materials and methods

In this part of the study, the research group, the measurement tools used to collect the data and the statistical procedures used in the analysis of the data are given. The study was designed in the relational screening model in order to examine the professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy levels of individual and team athletes in terms of different variables and to determine the relationship between them. Relational screening model is a screening approach that aims to determine the existence of change between two or more variables. In the relational survey model, it is tried to determine whether the variables change together and if there is a change, how it happens21. The research process began with the necessary ethical approvals. Following ethical approval, the study was conducted with volunteer athletes. Furthermore, the research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Research Group

The research group consisted of 384 licensed athletes (mean age=21.37±2.44) selected by random sampling method. It was determined that 176 (45.8%) of the athletes were interested in individual sports (athletics n=42, badminton n=39, tennis n=44, taekwondo n=51) and 208 (54.2%) were interested in team sports (basketball n=40, volleyball n=71, soccer n=62, handball n=35). The distribution of the athletes who participated in the study according to the variables of sport type, gender and years of practicing sport is shown in table 1.

Data Collection Tools

“Personal Information Form”, “Professionalism Scale for Athletes”, “Psychological Resilience Scale for Adults” and “Athlete Self-Efficacy Scale” were used to collect data in the study.

Personal Information Form

It was created by the researcher in order to obtain information about the sport type, gender, age and years of doing sports of the participants who voluntarily participated in the study.

Professionalism Scale For Athletes

Within the scope of the research, the “Professionalism Scale for Athletes” developed by Güngör, Kurtipek and İlhan was used to measure the level of professionalism of athletes9. The original Turkish version of the scale was utilized in this study. The participants were asked to evaluate the statements in the scale consisting of 11 items. The scale was evaluated with a 5-point rating method, and Güngör et al. calculated the cronbach alpha value for the scale as 0.92. In this study, the cronbach alpha value for the scale was determined as 0.96 (table 2)9.

Considering the cronbach alpha value obtained, it was seen that the scale used in the study was reliable.

Psychological Resilience Scale For Adults

The Psychological Resilience Scale was developed by Basım ve Çetin (2011) to assess the psychological resilience levels of individuals. The original Turkish version of the scale was utilized in this study22. The scale aims to measure he psychological resilience levels of individuals. The scale is a 5-point Likert-type scale with 33 items. Basım ve Çetin (2011) found the cronbach alpha value of the scale to be 0.81. This value showed that the scale is a highly reliable measurement tool. In this study, alpha was determined as 0.98 (table 2).

Athlete Self-Efficacy Scale

In the study, the “Athlete Self-Efficacy Scale” developed by Kocak was used to measure the self-efficacy beliefs of athletes. The original Turkish version of the scale was utilized in this study23. The scale is a 16-item scale and is graded on a 5-point Likert scale. The scale consists of 4 sub-dimensions: sport competence (items 1, 2, 3 and 4), psychological competence (items 5, 6, 7 and 8), professional thinking competence (items 9, 10, 11 and 12) and personality competence (items 13, 14, 15 and 16). In the study conducted by Kocak, cronbach alpha value was determined as 0.8923. In this study, the alpha value was calculated as 0.97 (table 2). The scale used in the study was found to have high reliability.

Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using SPSS 21 package program. The significance level was accepted as p<0.05. Skewness - Kurtosis coefficients were examined to determine whether the data were normally distributed. Tabachnick and Fidell stated that if the Skewness - Kurtosis values are between -1.5 and +1.5, it can be assumed that the data show a normal distribution24. In the study, it was determined that the Skewness - Kurtosis values were within the specified ranges (table 2) and the data showed a normal distribution. In the analysis of the data one-way (year of playing sport) and two-way (gender x sport type) ANOVA was used; frequencies, percentage distributions, and mean values were also calculated. Pearson correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between variables.

Results

Table 2 shows the mean scores of athletes’ professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy. It was determined that the Skewness and Kurtosis values were -0.249 - -0.681 for the professionalism scale, -0.264 - -0.676 for the psychological resilience scale, -0.182 - -0.620 for the athlete self-efficacy scale and the data showed normal distribution. In addition, cronbach alpha value was calculated as 0.96 for professionalism scale, 0.98 for psychological resilience scale and 0.97 for athlete self-efficacy scale. Considering the general acceptance that alpha coefficients of .70 and above indicate an acceptable level of internal consistency25, these values reveal that all scales used have a very high level of reliability. In particular, alpha values above .90 indicate that the measurement tool works with a very strong internal consistency26. In this context, it can be said that the measurement tools used in the study provide reliable data and support the validity of the findings (figures 1, 2, 3).

The differences in athletes’ mean scores of professionalism, psychological resilience, and athlete self-efficacy according to gender and type of sport were examined using a two-way ANOVA. The results are presented in table 3.

A statistically significant difference was found in favor of male athletes between female and male athletes’ mean scores of professionalism, psychological resilience, and athlete self-efficacy (p<0.05). This finding indicates that gender has a significant effect on professionalism, psychological resilience, and athlete self-efficacy, independent of sport type.

The analysis results also revealed a significant difference between individual and team sport athletes in terms of their mean scores of professionalism, psychological resilience, and athlete self-efficacy (p<0.05). It was observed that athletes engaged in individual sports exhibited higher levels of professionalism, psychological resilience, and athlete self-efficacy compared to those participating in team sports.

On the other hand, the interaction effect of gender and sport type on athletes’ mean scores of professionalism, psychological resilience, and athlete self-efficacy was not statistically significant (p>0.05). This result has shown that the effect of gender on professionalism, psychological resilience, and athlete self-efficacy does not differ according to sport type.

Table 4 shows the results of the ANOVA test conducted to determine whether there is a significant difference in the levels of professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy according to the year of practicing sport. As a result of the test, it was seen that there was a significant difference in the professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy levels of both individual and team athletes according to the year of playing sport (p<0.05). It was concluded that the professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy levels of the athletes increased as the years of practicing sports increased.

Table 5 shows the values obtained from Pearson correlation analysis to determine the relationship between age, professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy.

The results of the correlation analysis showed that there was a strong positive and significant relationship between the variables (p<0.05).

Discussion

In this study, professionalism, psychological resilience and athlete self-efficacy levels of individual and team athletes were examined on the basis of various demographic and sport variables. The findings revealed that variables such as sport type, gender and years of playing sport have significant effects on these psychological and professional characteristics. Moreover, the strong positive relationships observed between these variables indicate that the related constructs mutually influence each other and develop together. In general, these results are consistent with previous findings suggesting that athletes’ individual characteristics and sporting background are determinant in shaping their psychological resilience and professional efficacy levels. In this context, the research not only contributes to theoretical knowledge but also has important practical implications for experts working in the fields of sport psychology and athlete development.

The findings of table 3 show that the professional attitude, psychological resilience and self-efficacy levels of individual athletes are significantly higher than those of team athletes. This is closely related to the skills such as self-regulation, taking responsibility and independent decision-making that are inherent in individual sports. The direct attribution of success or failure in individual sports to personal performance may force these athletes to be more resilient and professional. Gould et.al state that elite athletes in individual sports are more developed in terms of psychological skills27. Similarly, Hardy et al. found that individual athletes have higher levels of self-awareness and self-efficacy than team athletes28. In team sports, on the other hand, the integration of individual performance into a collective structure may leave individual-level competence and resilience structures relatively secondary29. However, Nicholls et al. emphasized that individual athletes develop more effective strategies to cope with stress, which increases their psychological resilience levels30. Martin and Gill state that individual athletes have stronger intrinsic motivation and that this motivation supports self-efficacy perception by combining with self-regulation. In this context, the findings show that individual sports offer a strong environment for developing athletes’ psychological resilience and professional attitudes31. From the perspective of our conceptualization, these findings indicate that resilience, although partly rooted in relatively stable personal dispositions, is also shaped and reinforced by the demands of training and competition in individual sports, where responsibility and outcome attribution are more strongly tied to the individual athlete.

In addition there were significant differences in the levels of professionalism, psychological resilience and self-efficacy among both individual and team athletes depending on gender, and these differences were in favor of male athletes. This finding may be explained by differences in gender roles, the structure of sport environments and sporting experiences. Martens et al. argue that male athletes play sports in more competitive conditions from an early age and therefore their motivation for success develops more strongly32. A similar picture emerges in the context of psychological resilience. Jones et al. showed that male athletes can draw a more advantageous profile in areas such as coping with stress, goal focus, and emotional control33. Kaiseler et al. also found that gender has an effect on stress responses and coping strategies34. On the other hand, it is supported by studies such as Moritz et al. that especially young female athletes face more obstacles in their self-efficacy development processes35. Krane states that these differences are not only biological but also related to socialization processes and the construction of sport environments in favor of men. In this context, gender-based findings suggest that ongoing social inequalities in sport36. In this context, gender-based findings point to the effects of persistent social inequalities in sport on the psychological and professional development of athletes.

The data in table 4 show that the professional attitude, psychological resilience and self-efficacy levels of the athletes increased significantly as the years of playing sport increased. This pattern suggests that long-term sport participation not only enhances technical and tactical skills, but also contributes to the development of psychological and professional resources39-41. In line with our conceptualization, resilience appears to function as a malleable, experience-dependent capacity that is built over time as athletes repeatedly confront and successfully cope with competitive stressors37. Gucciardi et al. emphasize that resilience emerges from the interaction between individual dispositions and environmental experiences37, and Bandura’s social cognitive theory similarly highlights the role of mastery experiences in strengthening self-efficacy beliefs38. Taken together, these findings support the view that both resilience and self-efficacy develop through the accumulation of sport-specific challenges and successes39-41.

The correlation analyses in table 5 show that there are significant positive relationships between age and professionalism, psychological resilience and self-efficacy levels. This result indicates that, as athletes grow older and accumulate more life and sport experience, their professional attitudes and psychological maturity improve. In the literature, age is frequently emphasized as a determinant not only in physical performance but also in psychological processes42. In particular, the life experience gained with age leads to an increase in stress coping skills and self-efficacy perception10. Durand-Bush and Salmela demonstrated that age is related to the development of cognitive competencies such as self-regulation and self-efficacy43. Furthermore, Lavallee and Wylleman argued that professional attitudes reinforced with age contribute to the consolidation of athlete identity44. Eccles and Harold also noted that age strengthens individuals’ capacity for professional responsibility and effective self-management in sport environments45. Taken together, these findings support our conceptualization of resilience as a dynamic and evolving adaptation process rather than a fixed trait. As athletes advance through different developmental stages, they are exposed to a wider range of performance demands and social expectations, which contribute to the refinement of coping strategies, emotional balance and task-focused behavior. Therefore, age can be interpreted as a meaningful developmental factor that enhances both psychological resources and professionalism throughout the athletic career.

Conclusions

The findings of this study revealed that professionalism, psychological resilience and self-efficacy levels of individual and team athletes differed significantly depending on variables such as sport type, gender, age and duration of sport. In particular, the higher psychological and professional efficacy of athletes engaged in individual sports may be associated with the need for more individual responsibility, self-regulation and decision-making skills due to the nature of these sports. It was observed that these competencies developed more as the duration of practicing sports and age increased.

In terms of gender, male athletes were found to exhibit higher levels of professionalism and psychological resilience. These differences can be attributed not only to biological but also to social and cultural factors. The results suggest that athlete development is shaped by environmental, social and structural factors as well as individual effort.

Accordingly, it is important for practitioners working in the field of sport psychology to develop supportive programs that take into account the individual needs of young athletes and to carry out studies to reduce the structural barriers faced by female athletes in particular. The findings obtained both enrich the theoretical background and provide guidance in practice.

Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that future research be conducted on larger and more representative samples. Larger samples will allow for a more reliable and detailed examination of the interactions between variables such as sport type, gender, and duration of participation in sports. Furthermore, including age not only as a descriptive variable but also as a covariate in statistical analyses in future studies will increase the scientific validity of the findings. This will allow for a clearer demonstration of the potential moderating or explanatory effects of age on professionalism, psychological resilience, and self-efficacy. Such methodological approaches will contribute to both the development of theoretical knowledge and the production of stronger and more generalizable results for future research.

Conflicts of interest. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Funding. This research was funded by the Ministry of Health, Czech Republic; conceptual development of research organization (FNBr, 65269705).

Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank all the athletes who participated in the study.

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