Master swimmers’ start reaction time: a trainable skill for health and performance

Master swimmers’ start reaction time: a trainable skill for health and performance

CECILIA BRATTA1, LETIZIA LEGGIERO1, CHRISTEL GALVANI2, SABRINA DEMARIE1

1Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy; 2Exercise & Sport Science Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Exercise and Sport Science Degree Course, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy.

Summary. Background. Start reaction time is a key determinant of swimming performance, particularly in sprint events. While extensively studied in young elite swimmers, limited research has explored its impact on master swimmers. This study examines the relationship between start reaction time, age, and swimming stroke in male and female master swimmers competing at the World Championships. Methods. Data from the 2023 Masters World Championships in Kyushu, Japan, were analysed, including 4357 male and 3617 female results from 50m and 100m events in Freestyle, Backstroke, Breaststroke, and Butterfly. Reaction times and race performances were assessed across 15 age groups (25–99 years). Spearman’s correlation examined the relationship between reaction time, performance, and age. Results. Performance and reaction times declined with increasing age in all strokes and distances. The strongest correlations were found between the year of birth and performances (rho: min -0.701 max -0.855), reaction times presented lower but still significant correlation with the year of birth (rho: min -0.441 max -0.599). Strong negative correlations between reaction time and performance (rho: min -0.531 max -0.697) emphasized its role in competitive success. Conclusions. Developing fast start reaction time is crucial for master swimmers, as it significantly impacts performance. Training programs focusing on lower limb strength and neuromuscular response may help counteract age-related declines. Coaches should incorporate reaction time training to optimize race performance and mitigate the functional effects of aging.

Key words. Master swimmers, reaction time, swimming performance, aging, training, health.

Tempo di reazione alla partenza nei nuotatori master: un’abilità allenabile per migliorare salute e performance

Riassunto. Introduzione. Il tempo di reazione alla partenza rappresenta un determinante chiave della performance nel nuoto, in particolare nelle gare sprint. Sebbene sia stato ampiamente studiato nei nuotatori élite giovani, pochi studi hanno indagato il suo impatto nei “master swimmers”. Il presente studio analizza la relazione tra tempo di reazione alla partenza, età e stile di nuotata in nuotatori master, uomini e donne, partecipanti ai Campionati Mondiali. Metodi. Sono stati analizzati i dati dei Campionati Mondiali Master 2023 tenutisi a Kyushu, Giappone, comprendenti 4357 risultati maschili e 3617 risultati femminili nelle gare di 50 m e 100 m stile libero, dorso, rana e farfalla. I tempi di reazione e le prestazioni in gara sono stati valutati in 15 gruppi di età (25–99 anni). La correlazione di Spearman è stata utilizzata per esaminare le relazioni tra tempo di reazione, prestazione ed età. Risultati. Le prestazioni e i tempi di reazione peggiorano progressivamente con l’aumentare dell’età in tutti gli stili e distanze analizzati. Le correlazioni più forti sono state riscontrate tra l’anno di nascita e le prestazioni (rho: min 0,701, max -0,855). I tempi di reazione hanno mostrato una correlazione più bassa ma comunque significativa con l’anno di nascita (rho: min -0,441, max -0,599). Correlazioni negative e marcate tra tempo di reazione e prestazione (rho: min -0,531, max -0,697) sottolineano il ruolo determinante del tempo di reazione nel successo competitivo. Conclusioni. Lo sviluppo di un tempo di reazione rapido è cruciale per nuotatori master, in quanto influisce significativamente sulla performance. Programmi di allenamento mirati al potenziamento degli arti inferiori e alla risposta neuromuscolare potrebbero contrastare il declino legato all’età. Gli allenatori dovrebbero integrare esercitazioni specifiche sul tempo di reazione per ottimizzare le prestazioni in gara e mitigare gli effetti funzionali dell’invecchiamento.

Parole chiave. Nuotatori master, tempo di reazione, prestazione nel nuoto, invecchiamento, allenamento, salute.

Introduction

Swimming start time has a significant impact on race time, accounting for 0.8%-30% of overall performance depending on the race distance, with a higher percentage in sprint events1-4. A successful start relies on a combination of factors including reaction time, force applied to the block, low resistance upon entering the water, underwater glide, and underwater propulsion. Reaction time is determined by the time between the starting signal and the application of force1,2,5. The effectiveness of the start hinges on a quick reaction to the start signal and a strong impulse generated by the block4,5. Research work proved that an effective diving technique enable swimmers to exploit the speed generated during the dive and are in line with the principle of efficiency that drives every phase of the competitive event2-4,6-12. However, much work has been developed on young athletes of every competitive level, while a paucity of studies has examined the performances of master swimmers13-15. The relationship between reaction time and health in the elderly population is multifaceted and has significant implications. Simple reaction time tests serve as indicators of nerve conduction velocity and the physiological characteristics of white matter. The correlation between reaction time and nerve conduction suggests that individuals exhibiting swift reaction times may possess fewer physiological constraints affecting neural processing. This implies an efficient transmission of signals along nerve pathways, potentially indicative of optimal white matter integrity. The efficiency of nerve conduction, as reflected in reaction time, is crucial for various cognitive and motor functions. Shorter reaction times suggest a rapid and seamless relay of information between different brain regions, enabling quick decision-making and swift motor responses. This efficiency may be particularly advantageous in situations requiring immediate action or rapid cognitive processing16. Among older adults with mild to moderate cognitive impairment, poorer executive function was associated with an increased risk of multiple falls. This association was influenced by reaction time and postural sway, indicating that fall prevention programs addressing these factors may benefit older adults with cognitive impairment and lower executive function17. The demands of daily life often require individuals to perform mobility tasks while simultaneously dealing with distractions and competing stimuli. The age-related decline in reaction time on executive functions can impair an individual’s ability to efficiently process and respond to these challenges, increasing the risk of falls. The association between gait during dual-tasking and falls further highlights the importance of reaction time and executive function’s ability in safe mobility18.

Research indicates that reaction times tend to slow with age due to a combination of factors, including slower processing speeds and increased cautiousness in response selection19. This slowing can have implications for daily activities and overall quality of life in the elderly20,21. Reaction Rate of Time is a critical measure of cognitive function in older adults17-20. As people age, there is a general decline in cognitive processing speed, which is reflected in slower reaction times. This decline is associated with changes in brain structure and function, such as reduced grey matter volume and white matter integrity20. In older adults, slower reaction times may be associated with cognitive decline and dementia, as well as with an increased risk of falls, which can cause serious injuries, loss of independence, and even death22. Studies have linked muscle strength to reaction time performance, suggesting a relationship between reduced reaction time and physical function23-25. Maintaining muscle strength and optimizing reaction time are crucial factors in preventing falls, especially among older adults. Stronger muscles contribute to better physical performance and quicker reaction times, both of which are vital for maintaining balance and preventing falls. Recent studies have demonstrated that physical activity aimed at improving reaction time, including swimming, not only enhance physical functionality but also reduce the risk of falls, highlighting their potential as a preventive measure26,27. Swimming performance tends to progressively worsen after the age of 35-40, with peak performance typically being maintained until the mid-thirties, followed by a gradual decline until the age of 7028. Changes in body composition due to aging can impact muscle structure, reducing the ability to perform exercises that require strength and power. The natural decline in swimming performance may impact the long-term effectiveness of this exercise as a preventive measure for older adults. Though, research has indicated a strong correlation between lower limb strength and starting performance, and also between lower limb strength and the prevention of falls29. While elderly swimmers may not need to improve competitive dives, the underlying principles of muscle coordination, balance, and neural efficiency are crucial for maintaining overall physical health, preventing injury, and promoting independence in aging populations and are directly applicable to their overall health and well-being. Both initiation time (reaction time in the free condition) and preparation time (minimum time needed to prepare accurate movements in the forced condition) increases significantly with age. This indicates a genuine decline in the ability to process information and prepare movements quickly as part of the normal aging process. Swimming is a holistic exercise that addresses many of the physical and mental challenges associated with aging. By reinforcing neural pathways, strengthening muscles, improving balance, and promoting social interaction, swimming helps elderly individuals maintain their independence, prevent injuries, and enjoy a higher quality of life20,30.

Therefore, specific training programs focused on improving reaction time and performance, including in-water and dry-land exercises, should incorporate a variety of exercises such as strength and endurance training, core training, and plyometric exercises31. Indeed, by focusing on building lower limb strength through targeted exercises, master swimmers can potentially see significant improvements in their performance and quality of life4,12.

The investigation of reaction time for this specific age group is necessary to fully understand the strategies aimed at improving performance in master competitive swimming. Therefore, the aim of the work is to analyse the start reaction time and overall performance of master swimmers at World Championships. Based on the provided background and rationale, the following hypotheses can be formulated to guide the research study: swimming start reaction time significantly impacts overall race performance in master swimmers, with faster reaction times correlating with better race outcomes; older age groups exhibit slower reaction times and poorer race outcomes compared to younger master swimmers. The study will involve gathering data from master swimmers competing at World Championships and analysing their start reaction times in relation to their sexes, age groups and swimming distances in the four swimming strokes.

Materials and methods

Swimmer’s official results of the Masters World Championships held in 2023 in Kyushu, Japan, were gathered from the World Aquatics Federation official data bank. The dataset comprises performance metrics from multiple age groups of both sexes, with descriptive values presented as mean and standard deviation, the latter indicating the variation in data values across different age groups. The analysis focuses on the trends, correlations, and variations with age (year of birth and age group) of swimming performance (50m and 100m finish time) and start reaction time in the four swimming strokes (Freestyle, Backstroke, Breaststroke, and Butterfly). Results are grouped by 14 range of age as follows, name of the group: years of age 15= 99-95, 14= 90-94, 14= 85-89, 13= 80-84, 12= 75-79, 11= 70-74, 10= 65-69, 9= 60-64, 8= 55-59, 7= 50-54, 6= 45-49, 5= 40-44, 4= 35-39, 3= 30-34, 2= 25-29. Data amounted to 4357 results for male and 3617 results for female swimmers. Results were categorized by stroke (freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly), distance (50 m or 100 m), and gender (male/female).

To establish if start reaction time and swimming performance decline with age, a one-way ANOVA was conducted to determine significant differences across age groups for each swimming stroke and distance. Tukey post-hoc pairwise comparisons were applied to identify specific age-related differences. Linear regression models were employed to analyse trends in start reaction times as a function of age.

Results

As expected, a one-way ANOVA results indicated that younger swimmers of both sexes have significantly better performance (p<0.01) and reaction times (p<0.01) both in the 50 m and 100 m competitions of all swimming strokes. Post-hoc analysis showed that performance and reaction time differences were consistently statistically significant across age groups, except for comparisons between adjacent groups. Standard deviations decrease with younger groups, indicating more consistent performance in younger age groups. Breaststroke consistently shows the slowest times across all age groups, while Butterfly exhibits slightly better times compared to Backstroke at younger ages.

Performance times in the 50m competitions decrease consistently across all strokes from the oldest to youngest age groups in all swimming strokes, as represented in figures 1 for male and in figure 2 for female swimmers, with the youngest groups achieving performance times around 30 s, whereas older groups have times extending beyond 70 s.

Likewise, the 100m performance times decrease steadily from the oldest to youngest age groups in all swimming strokes, as characterised in Figures 1 for male and in Figure 2 for female swimmers, with the youngest groups achieving times of less than 60 s and older groups have times higher than 120 s.

Start reaction time in the 50m competitions increases with older age across all swimming strokes as represented in figures 3 for male and in figure 4 for female swimmers. Reaction times in the 50m competitions of all swimming strokes range from approximately 1.0 s in older groups to around 0.6s–0.7s in younger groups.

Similarly, in 100m competitions, start reaction times decrease consistently from the oldest to the youngest age groups in all strokes, as seen in figures 3 and 4 for males and females respectively, with all age groups achieving times comparable to those reported for the 50 m competitions.

Correlations of start times and performance with age

The correlations between start reaction time and performance with age indicate that younger swimmers have significantly better performance and reaction times both in the 50 m and 100 m competitions of all swimming strokes.

The Spearman’s rho correlation between 50m and 100m time and the year of birth, denoted in table 1, is strong and negative across all strokes.

The correlation between start reaction time in the 50m and 100m competitions of the four swimming strokes and year of birth is negative, though weaker compared to the performance time, but still statistically significant as reported in table 2.

Correlations between performance and start reaction time

We examined the correlation between performance and start reaction time in the 50m and 100m races of the four swimming strokes to determine whether the start reaction time could be a determining factor in performance.

The correlation between performance time and start reaction time reported in table 3 is positive in all strokes, meaning faster swimmers tend to have quicker reaction times.

Discussion

Reaction time serves as a critical biomarker of both cognitive and motor function, with well-documented age-related declines characterized by increased variability and slowing in older adults32-34. These changes are closely associated with health risks such as falls, mobility impairments, and reduced driving safety, making RT a valuable metric for assessing functional independence in aging populations35. By analysing RT regression with age, the study could highlight its utility as a screening tool for early detection of neurocognitive decline or frailty. The present study highlights clear trends of swimming performance and start reaction times decrement with older age groups36. Our findings reveal clear age-related trends in swimming performance and start reaction times, both of which show strong negative correlations with age. The findings confirm that younger swimmers exhibit better overall speed and starting efficiency, with variations across different strokes. Age is considered the most significant factor in predicting swimming performance, followed closely by training volume37. For instance, race times in the 200 meters can increase by as much as 72.8% from the youngest to the oldest age groups. Training volume also plays a crucial role in predicting performance for middle-aged and older swimmers38. Increasing training volume by 10 km per month has been associated with a performance improvement of 0.69 seconds, regardless of age. As individuals age, there is a greater decline in performance in long-duration events compared to short-duration events. This suggests that there may be a more rapid decline in aerobic variables than in anaerobic variables. Accordingly, it has been noted that maximal oxygen uptake declines by approximately 10% per decade after the age of 25-30 in healthy, sedentary adults. Moreover, in long-distance swimming, prolonged muscle contractions lead to greater central and peripheral fatigue that would contribute to a noticeable decrease in performance39,40. In contrast, sprinters can maintain high power output for a short duration before fatigue becomes a limiting factor41. Muscle fatigue leads to a deterioration in coordination, reducing propulsion efficiency. Research has shown that swimmers compensate for fatigue by increasing stroke rate, which leads to inefficient movements and increased drag42,43. Stroke rate is more significantly affected by aging than stroke length, with propulsive efficiency decreasing as individuals grow older. Older swimmers tend to rely on a more powerful stroke with lower technical quality to swim faster, while younger swimmers demonstrate a more technical stroke with good strength. During long races, swimmers experience a decline in stroke rate and stroke length, which directly impacts velocity. Lastly, longer races expose swimmers to body temperature regulation challenges, especially in open-water events. Dehydration leads to cardiovascular strain, reduced blood volume, and impaired muscle function, contributing to greater performance decline over long distances44.

Start time has a significant impact on race time, accounting for anywhere from 0.8% to 30% depending on the race distance, with a higher percentage in sprint events. A faster reaction time can lead to improved swimming performance, with normal reaction times for a start typically around 0.70 seconds. In the 100m butterfly, reaction time and split time (ST) influence finish time (FT), with reaction time affecting 51% of the time in the first 50 meters. In sprint racing, a successful start relies on a combination of factors including reaction time, force applied to the block, low resistance upon entering the water, underwater glide, and underwater propulsion. Reaction time is determined by the time between the starting signal and the application of force. Athletes who compete in longer distances tend to have a higher reaction time, possibly due to a better visualization of the ideal race compared to those in shorter races. The effectiveness of the start hinges on a quick reaction to the start signal and a strong impulse generated by the block. An effective start enables the swimmer to enter the water at a speed greater than the average swimming speed, underscoring the importance of the start in speed races. The impulse generated during take-off from the wall is linked to the time taken to reach 6 meters and the propulsive velocity upon exiting the turn. The decline in the start reaction time is confirmed by our results could be supposed to depend on the changes in body composition due to aging that can also impact muscle structure, reducing the ability to perform exercises that require strength and power.

Targeted interventions, while tailored for sport, share underlying physiological and neurological principles relevant to aging populations. In older adults, diminished RT is strongly associated with increased fall risk and loss of functional independence17,19. Adapting swimmer RT training for the elderly involves recalibrating intensity and complexity while maintaining the emphasis on neuromuscular efficiency, cognitive-motor integration, balance, and mobility. The study by Hardwick et al.20 examined how aging affects movement preparation, initiation, and the delay between them, challenging the idea that older adults are simply more hesitant to respond 20. The results showed that the time taken to both initiate and prepare movements increased with age. The research indicated that reaction times increase with age due to a slowing in processing stimuli and preparing movements, rather than an increased hesitancy to respond, suggesting that slower reaction times in older adults are primarily due to declines in their ability to process stimuli and prepare movements, rather than an increased cautiousness or hesitancy to respond. The study highlights the importance of understanding the specific factors contributing to age-related slowing in reaction times, focusing on processing speed rather than just cautiousness. This conclusion aligns with observed age-related changes in brain structure and function33.

Improving reaction time (RT) in swimmers’ diving starts represents a critical area of performance enhancement that also holds significant implications for health and safety in the elderly population. The specificity of training for elite swimmers focuses on the rapid integration of auditory or visual stimuli with explosive neuromuscular responses45,46. These protocols emphasize not only physical preparedness but also the cognitive and biomechanical precision required to minimize the latency between the start signal and take-off. Strength and conditioning training, encompassing strength and endurance exercises, core workouts, and plyometrics, plays a crucial role in enhancing swimming performance, particularly in starts47,48. Strength and endurance training, along with core exercises, contribute to improved sprint performance, while resistance training positively influences stroke rate. Plyometric training, especially progressive long jump plyometrics, enhances kinetic and kinematic aspects of the swim start by developing lower limb strength, which is strongly correlated with starting performance. Specific start training can reduce race time by up to 0.10 seconds by refining reaction time (RT), impulse force, and gliding position during the submerged phase. However, when the goal is improving both health and performance of athletes, it is necessary to consider technical tactical skills, physical fitness, and mental fitness, all of which form the triad of sports development49. Recent research has indicated that also cognitive training can transfer to faster dive reactions in high-performance swimmers50.

Swimmers benefit from neuromuscular training programs designed to increase explosive power through exercises such as plyometrics and resistance training. Neuromuscular adaptations in elderly training may be achieved through low intensity plyometrics and resistance exercises that preserve muscular power and support everyday movements. Crucially, cognitive-motor integration techniques such as dual-task training, combining physical and mental challenges, simulate the divided attention required in real-world environments, fostering both motor responsiveness and cognitive resilience. These enhance motor unit recruitment and the rate of force development, mechanisms directly correlated with faster starts and with daily wellbeing and mobility51. Start-specific drills using auditory or visual cues further improve the swimmer’s capacity to rapidly process sensory information and execute movement with minimal delay45. In parallel, cognitive drills such as randomized stimuli training and mental visualization refine the athlete’s attentional focus and anticipatory capabilities, critical for improving reaction efficiency52,53. The neurofeedback method (NFB) provides athletes with real-time information about changes in brain activity that can help them regulate their activity. As part of NFB training, participants learn to regulate their brain activity with the goal of changing their behaviour or cognitive. A systematic review and meta-analysis examining the effects of neurofeedback on athletes’ reaction times and cognitive performance provided evidence that neurofeedback can improve reaction times49. A study on 3D-Multiple Object Tracking showed significant improvements in off-the-block reaction times for varsity swimmers. This suggests that cognitive aspects of training can play a role in improving reaction times off the block50. Moreover, incorporating auditory components into start training further optimizes sensorimotor processing, significantly reducing RT12. Training with auditory stimulation that replicates competition start signals has been shown to improve RT, with the coach’s voice proving more effective than dives performed without auditory cues. Equally vital is the focus on balance and postural stability, with interventions such as single-leg stance exercises, Tai Chi, and core stability training promoting proprioception and trunk control54,55. These are essential to reduce the likelihood and severity of falls. Flexibility and joint mobility exercises, including yoga and gentle stretching, preserve the movement quality and reduce injury risk during rapid adjustments in posture or direction30. When modified appropriately, these training methods can play a pivotal role in fall prevention, functional maintenance, and cognitive health in elderly populations. The mentioned studies indicate that a decline in reaction time could be associated with the disruption of physical functions. For the elderly population, maintaining good reaction times through physical activities can have significant health benefits, including better cognitive function, reduced fall risk, and improved overall physical health. The trainability of reaction time, even in older adults, suggests that targeted interventions could help mitigate some of the negative effects of aging on both cognitive and physical performance. It is crucial for older adults to engage in regular exercise to maintain physical fitness and motor skills. The cross-disciplinary application of sport science principles underscores the potential for performance-oriented methodologies to contribute meaningfully to public health and aging well-being. Swimming is a low-impact and safe activity that is suitable for individuals with limitations or orthopaedics injuries. Incorporating physical activities like swimming into one’s routine is vital for warding off chronic diseases.

Conclusions

This report provides a quantitative overview of how age and year of birth influence race times and start reaction times in male master swimmers, serving as a valuable resource for coaches, athletes, and researchers interested in performance trends. Coaches can focus on start reaction time improvement, particularly in older age groups, to optimize race performance and to counteract the loss of muscular ability and quality with the increasing age. These findings support the importance of maintaining physical activity, such as swimming, and engaging in exercises that challenge reaction time as people age. Such activities that can contribute to better cognitive function, reduced fall risk, and overall improved health outcomes in the elderly population. This approach bridges sport science with gerontology and preventive medicine. For example, insights into how RT training protocols (commonly used in athletics) translate to functional health improvements in older populations could inspire hybrid interventions, addressing both performance optimization and chronic disease management.

Further analysis can explore factors such as training intensity, competition experience, and biomechanics to explain differences in age-related performance trends. Additional comparative studies across different competition levels may provide deeper insights into performance benchmarks in master swimmers. Future research should focus on developing more effective training methods to improve reaction times across all age groups, as well as exploring the long-term benefits of swimming and reaction time training on elderly health. Additionally, investigating the potential of new technologies and cognitive training techniques could open new avenues for enhancing both competitive swimming performance and healthy aging.

Conflicts of interest. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Authors’ contributions. Authors LL and CG have given substantial contributions to the conception or the design of the manuscript, author CB and author LL to acquisition, analysis and interpretation of the data. All authors have participated to drafting the manuscript, author SD and CG revised it critically. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. All authors contributed equally to the manuscript and read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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